A BRISK TOUR OF THE REFORMATION
Part 1 (Events leading to theReformation)

The Great Protestant Reformation begun about 484 years ago. Many things hadhappened during that period of time. Some of the effects of the Reformation arestill felt today by the Church at large. For example, the reason whynon-Catholic and non-Eastern Orthodox churches call themselves Protestants canbe traced back to the Great Reformation in 1517. However, since then, a lot ofthings have changed for Protestant churches too. In the first place, manyChristians today no longer know why we are called “Protestants.” In the secondplace, many, when asked if they know who Martin Luther the Reformer is, willreply quite confidently that they know: “He is the American civil rights activistwho was assassinated in 1968” (Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.). This lack ofknowledge of seemingly trivia facts is not inconsequential. It actually betraysthe pathetic state of misinformation and blissful ignorance that are plaguingmany modern Christians. In fact, I have no doubt that a very large segment ofnominal Protestantism is today teaching, for doctrine, what is even moreheretical and damaging than what is taught in many Roman Catholiccongregations. Errors which have already been condemned by our godly forebearsare not only repeated, but damnable heresies are being paraded as truth, sothat there are, no doubt, many today who call the Lord, “Lord,” but know notwhat is sin, and what they are being saved from.

This is one of the reasons why it is important for us to remember annually thegreat work of God in the 16th Century Protestant Reformation so that we may bewarned against apostasy and encouraged to seek the “old paths” (Jer 6:16) andto walk in it, knowing that the gates of hell will not prevail against it (Mt16:18). This year, we will do so by taking a very quick tour of the majormilestones and persons leading up to the Reformation and after the Reformation.

In this first part of a 4-part series (so planned), we shall jog through thehistory of the New Testament Church from the time of the Apostles to October31, 1517, itself. Our journey will comprise two legs. Firstly, we shall brieflyexamine the steps away from biblical Christianity that made the Reformationnecessary in the first place. Secondly, we shall trace, in general, the stepsthat actually led to the great event.

Steps Away from Biblical Christianity

The Reformation that was sparked off in Germany in 1517 was essentially anattempt to restore the true Church of Christ to the doctrines and practicesstipulated in the Word of God. As such, it was not by itself entirely necessaryhad it not been that the Church had apostatised. A study of the Reformationmust therefore include at least an introduction to the circumstances and eventspertaining to the movement away from biblical Christianity. This sectionsummarises three of numerous important events that might be thus described.

Edict of Milan (A.D. 313)

After a period of expeditious expansion, the New TestamentChurch, which was under the ministry of the Apostles, began to experiencevarious forms of persecution, so that although numerical growth was greatlyinhibited, the Church was in some ways purified. There was, after all, littlevisible benefits or incentives to pretend to be or to profess to be Christiansin those days. However, with the general toleration that came with the Edict ofMilan in A.D. 313, and the subsequent imperial sanction of Christianity, theChurch began to experience a period of rapid numerical growth while heathenismbegan to be disfavoured. But this was not without a cost, for it immediatelyresulted in a compromise of purity in the visible church as it becamefashionable to be called a Christian. At the same time, because EmperorConstantine continued to be favourable to the worship of the Unconquered Sun,many pagan ideas, such as the use of images, began to creep into the Church andwere, in some cases, even institutionalised. The existence of theseunscriptural practices and ideas in the Church, and others which would be addedalong the way, would make the Reformation a necessity when the Church began tosee the importance of biblical purity.

Rise of the Papacy

While the New Testament sees only two permanent offices inthe Church, that of elders (or bishops) and deacons, some of the presbyters inthe early church began to see themselves as being superior in rank to otherelders. Thus a new office known as ‘bishop,’ as contrasted to ordinary elders,was created. Soon, this error led to another in which the bishops of Rome,Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria, Ephesus, Corinth and Constantinople began toconsider themselves as superior to the bishops of the less important churchesin smaller cities. They called themselves Patriarchs and exercised authorityover the other churches. One error led to another and soon, these Patriarchsbegan to struggle among themselves for pre-eminence. In 440, Leo I ascended tothe episcopal throne in Rome and began to claim supremacy over the otherbishops. Schaff considers him to be “the first pope in the proper sense of theword” (History of the Christian Church, 3.315 [§63]). The Papacy wasfirmly established in Rome when Gregory I, in 452, was able to persuade theHuns under Attila to spare Rome when the weakened Roman empire could no longerresist them. Gerstner observes very astutely that this “began the fall of oneRome which tyrannised over the bodies of men to be succeeded by another Rome,which ultimately tyrannised over the bodies and souls of men” (HandoutChurch History, 9).

Although the idea of papacy is foreign to the Scripture, it was now firmlyentrenched in the church and nothing short of the scale of the Reformationcould bring the true Church out of the ecclesiastical bondage. Furthermore, theestablishment of the Papacy saw also the institutionalisation of manyunbiblical doctrines and practices. These include many that had direct andindirect bearings on the immediate events leading to the Reformation, such asthe doctrine of Purgatory which was established by Gregory I in 593, the use ofLatin in prayer and worship which was imposed by the same pope in 600, thedecree of the celibacy of the priesthood by Pope Gregory IV (Hildebrand) in1079, the sale of Indulgence in 1190 and the banning of the Bible from laymenin 1229, and the declaration by Boniface VIII of Unam Sanctam,which made submission to the pope necessary for salvation in 1302 (see LoraineBoettner, Roman Catholicism, [P&R, 1962], 7–9).

Although the doctrine of the infallibility of the pope was officially ratifiedby the Vatican Council only in 1870, the pope has practically enjoyed theauthority since the beginning. As a result, a reversal to biblicalChristianity, by renouncing some of the false teachings, became doctrinallyimpossible for the Church. Only a full scale Reformation and withdrawal fromthe ecclesiastical machinery could effect any permanent change at all.

Establishment of the Inquisition

Another event, which clearly led the Church away frombiblical Christianity and contributed to the Reformation, was the establishmentof the Inquisition by the Council of Verona in 1184(Boettner, op. cit., 8). The Inquisition essentiallyallowed the church to try suspected heretics and to use civil authorities toinflict severe punishments, including death by burning at the stake. The Inquisitionwasused against many Waldenses, and the Lollards, who were the really forerunnersof the Reformation. It is difficult to imagine how its establishment could infact be leading towards the Reformation. However, when we consider the factthat the existence of the Inquisition basically destroyed thepossibility of objective dialogue, it is not difficult to see how it hascontributed to the showdown of 1517.

Steps Towards the Reformation

It must be admitted that throughout the history of the Roman Catholic Church,there were in fact numerous attempts at reforming or renewing the Church.However, these attempts were humanly engineered. Not only were they limited inscope by design, but enjoyed very little success for various reasons. The GreatReformation, on the other hand, was not only successful, but was surelydivinely appointed. This is to be noted, firstly, from the fact that MartinLuther did not at first intended to cause a general reformation and, secondly,from the numerous events that led to it decisively. Let’s look at some of thesesteps by which the providence of God unfolded.

The Spread of Wycliffe’s Teachings

John Wycliffe (ca. 1329–84) was a leading professor in theUniversity of Oxford. In 1376, he began to criticise the clergy. He pointed outthat wealth and political power had so corrupted the church that a radicalreformation was necessary. Calling the pope the antichrist, he declared theBible, rather than the church, to be the only rule of faith; deniedtransubstantiation; and declared that the church consists of God’s chosenpeople, and therefore has no need of any priest to mediate for her.

Wycliffe also translated the Bible into English (The Wycliffe Bible) sothat Christians in England might be able to read for themselves. He also wrotemany books, including Summa Theologica. These books were greatlyread and consulted by many of the Reformers, including Luther.

Wycliffe was eventually forced to flee to Lutterworth where he died in 1384.His followers, who became known as the Lollards, developed into an organisedgroup, with their own ministers and popular support. Although they wereseverely persecuted, and many were martyred at the stake, the Lollardscontinued to preach until their numbers thinned out. However, Lollardismcontinued on in secret and prepared the way for Protestantism of the nextcentury.

Martyrdom of John Huss and the Hussite War

John Huss (1374–1415) of Bohemia was trained for thepriesthood, and became the dean of the theological faculty and later the headof the University of Prague. Huss, who was very much influenced by the writingof Wycliffe, taught the importance of personal piety and purity of life. Hestressed on the authority of the Bible in the Church, and emphasised on thecentrality of preaching. He defined the Church as the Body of Christ, withChrist as the only head. He distinguished between being in theChurch and of the Church (cf. 1 Jn 2:19). One could be in theChurch, and yet not be real members of her. Although, he defended thetraditional authority of the clergy, he taught that only God can forgive sin.He also pointed out that neither popes nor cardinals could establish anydoctrine which was contrary to Scripture. And, in this respect, Christiansshould not obey any order from them, which was plainly wrong. Huss alsocondemned the corruptness of the clergy and criticised his people forworshipping idols, believing in false miracles, and undertaking superstitiouspilgrimages. He criticised the church for withholding the cup from the laity inthe Lord’s Supper. He also condemned the sale of Indulgence.

Huss was eventually martyred for his faith in 1415. It would seem that thiswould be a step away from the Reformation, but this is not the case as Wylie soeloquently contemplates: “As a preacher of Bethlehem Chapel he had largelycontributed to emancipate Bohemia, as the martyr of Constance he was largely tocontribute to emancipate Christendom” (J.A. Wylie, The History ofProtestantism, 1.143). Gerstner further notes that “Luther was never to callhimself a Wyclifite but a Hussite” and that the Reformation was born not in“1517, when the theses were posted and the Reformation had its externalbeginnings, but in July 1519” when John Eck debated with him and cleverlyforced him to admit that he was a Hussite (Gerstner, op. cit., 14,19).

Furthermore, Huss’ treacherous murder caused a great unrest throughout Bohemia.The followers of Huss and those sympathetic to his cause, which amounted topractically the whole nation, rose up in arms and tried to attack the RomanCatholic clergy. The attack was not successful, but it is significant that forthe first time, a whole nation opposed the authority of the pope. Bohemia wasthe first European nation that dared to openly reject the papal yoke.

Martyrdom of Girolamo Savonarola

Of the pre-reformers, Girolamo Savonarola(1452–98) was probably the most controversial and is sometimes not consideredas a genuine forerunner of the Great Reformation (see P.K. Keizer, ChurchHistory, 87). Savonarola was a monk in the Domician order. Unlike Wycliffeand Huss, Savonarola was not a doctrinal reformer. Although Luther regarded hima pioneer of the Reformation, his reformation efforts were contained inattacking the evil lives and immoral habits of many of his fellow-countrymen.It had no link with the reform of doctrine that would begin just twenty yearsafter his martyrdom at the stake. Nevertheless, through his martyrdom in 1498,he became a kind of hero to many of the early Protestants who saw his braveopposition against the Papacy, an example to imitate.

Brethren of the Common Life

Towards the end of the 14th century, a movement sprung upin northern Europe known as the Devotio Moderna which means“modern way of serving God.” This was essentially a movement of spiritualrevival within the Catholic church, which strongly emphasised both personaldevotion and social involvement, especially in education.

One of the most significant founders of the movement was Geert Groote(1340–84), of Deventer in Holland. Prior to his conversion of 1374, Grootelived a life of self-indulgent luxury, but when he was soundly converted, helent himself totally to practical piety in the service of God and man. One ofthe many things Groote did was to gather a community of men comprising mainlyof like-minded friends and followers to live a common life together in hishouse. This community became known as the “Brethren of the Common Life.” It wasa semi-monastic group, observing the threefold rule of poverty, chastity andobedience. This group of believers contributed significantly to the Reformationby the teachings of three of her followers, namely, John of Wessel who taughtthe doctrine of justification by faith alone and declared the sufficiency andauthority of the Bible even before Luther; Thomas à Kempis who wrote the muchloved devotional handbook, The Imitation of Christ, and DesideriusErasmus of whom we will say more in the next section.

Although the Brethren of the Common Life practised medieval mysticism, theteachings that stemmed from it conditioned the hearts and minds of many toreceive the teaching of the Reformers.

Renaissance

One of the most important contributing events to theReformation is the Renaissance. The Renaissance began in Italy, but spread tothe rest of Western Europe. It created an intellectual outlook that favouredthe development of Protestantism.

The Renaissance began with the revival of classical learning by scholars whohave come to be called “humanists.” Although the term “humanist” originallyreferred to those who taught Latin grammar, it later came to mean a student ofLatin and Greek who not only read classical writings but moulded his life onwhat he read. Thus humanists stand in contrast to the schoolmen, and humanismin contrast to scholasticism.

Although Renaissance humanists read non-Christian authors, such as Cicero andPlato, they were not outwardly opposed to Christianity. In fact, most of theearly humanists professed faith in Christ. Since the New Testament is in Greek,inevitably, the humanists began to extend their attention from the text ofsecular literature to the Bible. The pioneer in this field was Lorenzo Valla(1405–57), who deserves to be called the father of modern biblical criticism.In a most significant move, in 1444, he published a daring comparison betweenthe Latin Vulgatetranslation and the Greek original in his Annotationson the New Testament. In many ways Valla foreshadowed Erasmus. His writingshad tremendous influence on the German Reformers of the next century and wereespecially prized by Luther.

Soon after it begun, Humanism begun to spread to the surrounding countries suchas France, Germany, Holland, Spain and England. In France, one of the leadinghumanists was Jacques Lefèvre (1450–1536), a man much respected by John Calvin.The story is told of how Calvin visited Lefèvre while a fugitive at Angoulême.The aged Lefèvre grasped young Calvin’s hand and said: “Young man, you will beone day a powerful instrument in the Lord’s hand; God will make use of you torestore the kingdom of heaven in France” (Wylie, op. cit., 178).Lefèvre also contributed to the Reformation movement by his translation of theNew Testament and the Old Testament into French in 1523 and 1528 respectively.Most other French translations, including the Geneva Bible,depended on his translation.

In Germany, of particular importance were Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (ca.1400–64), the foremost speculative thinker of his age, and Johann Reuchlin(1455–1522), whose Rudimenta Linguae Hebraice, 1506, establishedthe study of Hebrew in the West and was one of the most important contributionsof the Renaissance to the Reformation.

In England came the notable scholars John Colet (1467–1519) and Thomas More(ca. 1478–1535). These were Christian humanists whose teachings also sowed theseed of the Reformation.

In Holland, came, no doubt, the greatest of all humanists, Desiderius Erasmusof Rotterdam (1467–1536). Erasmus’ contribution to the cause of the Reformationis so significant, it is said that “he laid the egg that Luther hatched.”Erasmus was greatly influenced by the Christian Humanism of Colet and More,having studied under them from 1499 to 1500. He contributed to the Reformationin various ways, but by far the most important way was his ‘epoch-making’edition of the Greek New Testament, which was published at Basle in 1516, oneyear before the Reformation begun. This was the first Greek New Testament everprinted, and would form the basis of many translations into the vernaculartongues, during and after the Reformation.

Invention of the Printing Press

About 1445, a man by the name of Johann Gutenberg ofGermany rediscovered and developed the ancient art of printing (invented byChinese in the 5th century) and began to pioneer with metal typeface.Significantly, the first book which he chose to print was the Bible.

For about twenty years, the technology was a closely guarded trade secret inMainz, where it was invented. However, by the providence of God, the city wasplundered in 1462, and as a result of that the printers dispersed, so thatwithin two decades printing presses were set up in Rome, Paris, Cracow andWestminster. By the time Luther was born in 1483, printing was well establishedthroughout Europe.

To a large extent, it was printing that contributed to the spread andsustenance of the Reformation in the early days. Without it, it would havetaken too long before the writings of the early Reformers would get areasonable audience, and it would have been difficult to keep the fire burningthe way it did. Of greatest significance, perhaps, is the way in which theprinting presses helped to spread Luther’s famed ninety-five “Theses.” Wylieastutely observes:

Now was seen the power of that instrumentality which Godhad prepared beforehand for this emergency—the printing-press. Copied with thehand, how slowly would these propositions have travelled, and how limited thenumber of persons who would have read them! But the printing-press, multiplyingcopies sowed them like snow-flakes over Saxony. Other printing-presses set towork, and speedily there was no country in Europe where the “Theses” of themonk of Wittenberg were not as well known as in Saxony (Wylie, Protestantism,266–7).

The Ninety-Five Theses

One of the most significant and well-known factors that ledto the Reformation is the theological factor: the key question being “What musta man do to be saved? How shall a sinner be justified before God and attainpeace of his troubled conscience?”

Although the doctrine of “Justification by Grace through Faith” was alreadyclearly taught by Augustine of Hippo in the earlier past of the fifth century,the Medieval church on the whole adopted the philosophies of Thomas Aquinas(1225–74), who taught that the will of man was not totally corrupt. He assertedthat by faith and the use of the means of grace in the sacraments dispensed bythe church, man could achieve salvation. Augustine, on the other hand, heldfirmly to the Pauline theology that man could do nothing towards his salvation.Salvation was monergistic: by grace through faith.

With the advent of the Renaissance, and the emphasis on the study of theScriptures, this important doctrine of justification by grace through faithalone:sola fide, was once again rediscovered. Although, the accounts onhow the truth of the doctrine dawned upon Martin Luther are contradictory, itis quite clear that it was Luther who sparked off the Reformation by hisapplication of the doctrine in reaction to the Roman Catholic doctrine ofIndulgence and penance. The immediate events leading to the significant publicre-declaration of this doctrine is a display of the sovereignty and goodness ofGod, so that even the sin of men redounds to His own glory.

In 1514, Archbishop Albert, a prince of the House of Hohenzollern, who wasalready in control of two provinces of the Roman Catholic Church, desired alsothe vacant arch-bishopric of Mainz.Because the cannon law forbade one man to hold more than one office, he had to bribePope Leo X for the dispensation necessary before he could fill the two offices.Leo X, who was also aspiring at this time to build the present Saint Peter’sCathedral, imposed a huge sum on Albert before he would be permitted to take upthe bishopric. The Papacy then suggested that Albert take a loan from thewealthy Fugger banking family in Augsburg, andas a security for the loan, the pope issued a papal bull authorising the saleof Indulgence in Saxony. This would guaranteethat Albert would be able to repay the sum borrowed.

Having secured the loan, Albert immediately employed a Dominican monk, JohannTetzel, to sell the Indulgences on his behalf. Tetzel, who once narrowlyescaped the death sentence by drowning for a shameful crime he committed, lackedno quality necessary for success in his scandalous occupation. As he progressedthrough Germany, heeventually reached Saxony, but the ElectorFrederick, shocked at the man’s trade and yet more for the scandals of hislife, forbade him from entering the city. Tetzel nevertheless set up his storeat Juterbock, a small town on the Saxon frontier. And since Wittenberg was only an hour and a half’swalking distance to the town, thousands flocked to do business with thispardon-monger.

While Luther was an academician, he also acted as a confessor as well as apreacher, and soon he discovered the moral havoc that Tetzel was creating in Wittenberg. One day, ashe sat in the confessional, some citizens of Wittenberg came before him, and confessedhaving committed thefts, adulteries, and other heinous sins. “You must abandonyour evil courses,” said Luther, “otherwise I cannot absolve you.” To hissurprise, and grief, they replied,—waving their Indulgence papers,—that theyhad no thought of leaving off their sins since they had already paid good moneyfor them.

Luther, much disturbed and enraged by what he saw and heard, eventually wrotehis famed ninety-five “Theses” or propositions on the doctrine of Indulgenceand nailed in on the door of the castle church of Wittenbergon October 31, 1517. These propositions, Luther undertook to defend the nextday at the university against all who might choose to debate with him. However,no one turned up. Instead, as mentioned earlier, the propositions began to gaina wide audience, and became the catalyst of the Reformation that followed.

Conclusion

We have briefly outlined the events that led to the Great Reformation of 1517in two phases. Firstly, we summarised the steps that took the Church away frombiblical Christianity; and secondly we traced the events that brought theChurch back by way of the Reformation. These steps and events of course mustnot be viewed in isolation, but must be considered as part of God’s overallinitiative to purify the true Church and to bring her back to biblicalChristianity. As such, there are many factors that led to the Reformation thatcannot be detailed as events leading to it, but as contributing individuals andfavourable circumstances. A complete study of the Reformation cannot disregardthese individuals, such as Peter Waldo, Nicholas of Lyra, William of Ockham,etc., and circumstances such as the economic situation, the social andpolitical climate of the Church. When all these are viewed together, anoverwhelming sense of the guiding hand of God can be seen and felt everywhere.Truly the primary and surest event, in the history of the Church, that may besaid to have led to the Reformation, is not any that has been discussed in thispaper, but Christ’s momentous sacrifice at Calvaryitself, where God’s victory over the Evil One is sealed for all eternity.

—J.J. Lim